Sahir Rahman: February 2016

Art Therapy and its influence on the development of 'Outsider' Art practices within an institutionalised environment.

Introduction

In this dissertation, I will look into the outsider art movement and art therapy, providing key artists and artwork. My interest in outsider art stems from the workings of prisoner Charles Bronson, where his work relates to the subject of “insanity” and “madness”. My research into outsider art has given me insight into many different artists who have suffered from mental illness, and how they have transitioned their inner mind into their work. Starting with the birth of outsider art, I note important works of which Jean Dubuffet set the wheels in motion for the art brut collection. His findings are analysed and commented on, which helps readers understand the change in artistic vision which caused the western society to rethink its definition of ‘art’. I will also mention the renowned artists of the art brut collection, which will focus on their backstory and their artwork. Additionally, Roger Cardinal’s ideology behind the term ‘outsider art’ will provide further understanding of the many established artists who adopted influences outsider the norm.

Continuing on from the development of outsider art, the second chapter will focus on the inception of art therapy. Particularly focusing on Edward Adamson’s career under the NHS, this will present readers with substantial examples on mentally ill patients and their art. Their artwork will be analysed, presenting a clear understanding of their visions, and linking it to their situations/life experiences. In addition to Adamson’s collection of art from his mental patient’s, I will use high profile artists such as Louis Wain and Richard Dadd as an example of art therapy and its effects on patients.

The third chapter will be based around art within a prison, the impact of the Koestler Trust and the benefits in which art has had on prisoners. I will focus on workings from the infamous serial killer John Wayne Gacy, analysing his creative intentions and uncovering the disturbing imagery that he illustrates on canvas. As I have been inspired by Bronson’s work, I will go into depth with his cartoons, mentioning his life experiences which eventually lead him to his incarceration and his time at Broadmoor. Observing his work, I will reveal key aspects which will relate to his life of anarchy.

Using references and visual representations throughout this dissertation will provide ample evidence to help show the development of art in a therapeutic way, which has been a positive impact on outsider art practices. Finally, using a well constructed conclusion, I will summarise all of my findings by using my own experiences and interests.

The Origins of Outsider Art: Dubuffet and the Art Brut movement

Outsider Art is a term given to a piece in which its creator has had no training or background in art. Roger Cardinal was the first person to coin this term in his book ‘Outsider Art’, released in 1972. This derived from the findings and work from Jean Dubuffet and his Art Brut collection.

Although the official term for this type of work was only coined in recent history, the practice of untutored art has been present for centuries, dating back to early recordings of cavemen drawings. Cardinal mentions a few artists who set the motions of outsider art (who in turn inspired Jean Dubuffet’s art brut). A few notable examples of high profile artists who have delivered exceptional and highly appraised pieces, deviating from the cultural and technical influence of studied art, includes that of Picasso, Gauguin and Kandinsky. Cardinal states that they all adopt a unique style to their pieces by “abandoning orthodox models and finding inspiration in the marginal arts”, using styles and techniques which are “alien to the establishment”. (Cardinal 1996, cited in Maizels, 1996:9)

Despite the above artist’s education in art preceding to their achievements, their introduction of complex methods became a staple in their work. Picasso’s ‘African Period’ featured paintings inspired by the West African carvings of ancient Iberian sculptures in the early 1900’s. Many of his workings during this period featured distinct patterns and facial features, similar to that of the African masks he had obtained. It is important to note that Picasso’s implementation of proto-cubism was also a contributing factor of his African-inspired paintings, being that it strayed away from the conventional means of practice in which Picasso and a few other artists abandoned the academic way of creativity.

In 1948, French painter/sculptor Jean Dubuffet, discovered this as a movement called ‘art brut’, also translating to ‘raw art’. His discovery stemmed from the fact that at the time, fine art was only presented by creators who had experienced academic training, or had some sort of a background to art. “His objective was to challenge the tribunal of artistic taste, the one that determines art history and its hierarchies, and the same one that today — more despotically than ever — makes and breaks the reputations of artists. (Thévoz 2001, cited in Peiry, 2001:8) During his trip to Switzerland a couple years prior, Dubuffet discovered a catalogue of art created by people who had no qualification or expertise in the subject. In addition, his works from 1942 often emulated the styles of the artists in which he had shown a stark interest to, such as the insane and children.

Dubuffet’s idea of art brut includes artwork such as graffiti, naive art, tribal, cavemen drawings, work from prisoners, children and the mentally ill. He envisioned art to be accessible for everyone, therefore he found it more poetic and enticing when a person creates a piece who is outside of the mainstream, in addition to being self-taught. Many outsider artists adopt a unique style to them, often straying away from the traditional use of technicalities such as perfect composition, lighting, brush strokes and proportions, while some may even use unusual materials to carry out their work. Along with fellow artists (Jean Paulhan and Andre Breton in particular), Dubuffet would go on to form ‘La Compagnie de l'art brut’, which would specialise in exploring and publicising art brut to the world. In the introduction of ‘Raw Creation: Outsider Art and Beyond’, Roger Cardinal (1996) mentions Dubuffet’s passion to promote art brut “was to prod Western aesthetics into perhaps one of its most critical efforts of rethinking. [He wanted to] turn taste inside out”.(Maizels, 2001:9) This also suggests that Dubuffet’s incentive to push forward the act of art brut was to encourage the sense of unpredictability in what was, at the time, a production of anticipated and perfectly assembled pieces of artwork which had no uniqueness or excitement about them.

The ‘Collection of Art Brut’ (Collection de l'Art Brut) is a gallery in Switzerland that currently hosts ‘over 63,000 works by 1000 creators’. Established by Dubuffet, the gallery strives to present and document the artwork that he had collected, featuring work that inspired his own. His intention for the collection was to be used as a “refuge not only from culture but from the marketplace”. (Sherman, 2011:111) The artists are also represented, with each given a summary of their life, possible influences and details about their type of work. These details offer very important insight into the artist’s mental state, as many of them come from psychiatric hospitals, a subject (art of the insane) in which Dubuffet was infatuated with and sought to uncover countless artworks for his collection.

The first example of works collected by Dubuffet includes that of Italian painter, Carlo Zinelli. Zinelli had a short stint during the Spanish civil war in 1939, but due to his schizophrenia, he was given medical leave. He fought for the Italian army during World War II, which proved to be a hard hit on his mental state. “During the next eight years, his mental condition deteriorated to the point where he was placed in an asylum due to aggressive and delirious behaviour. He was diagnosed in 1947 as schizophrenic, and suffered from a quasi-autistic condition which left him virtually unable to verbally communicate.” (Petullo Art Collection, s.d) At age 31, Zinelli was admitted to a psychiatric hospital in Verona, where he had been in isolation for 10 years. According to ‘Collection De L’art Brut’, he had started to scratch into the walls of the hospital, in which the establishment gave him access to a workshop for painting and sculpting in order for him to express himself more freely. (Collection De L’Art Brut Luasanne, s.d)

Zinelli’s works contains use of two dimensional illustrations, often depicting animals, his time during war and a rhythmic style which many may perceive to it relating to his personal interests, trauma and background. His style is similar to drawings on a cave wall, also african tribe art which features shapes and large silhouettes. Despite Zinelli being able to communicate during his time in the hospital, some of his illustrations did include some ineligible text. This could suggest that Zinelli was using his art as a way to reflect his mood, as it was the only form of communication that others would understand.

Madge Gill’s artwork is also another example of work included in Dubuffet’s collection. Her upbringing consisted of her being placed in an orphanage aged 9, after being cared for by her mother and aunt. She was then moved to Canada to work as a maid, before returning to England aged 19 as a nurse. Gill had undergone tragedy with two of her children, one of which was stillborn and the other died from the Spanish influenza epidemic of 1918. (Collection De L’Art Brut Lausanne, s.d) During birth of her stillborn child, Gill became severely ill and became blind in her left eye. It was after this incident that she began to draw, embroider and write.

Introduced to spiritualism and astrology by her aunt in the early 20th century, Gill’s sudden interest in drawing after recovering from her illness was quoted to be guided by her spirit, named ‘Myrninerest’. Using cardboard and ink, Gill provides intricate and flowing designs, often depicting the face of a women. It is unknown weather the woman in her art is portraying her spirit, although others have suggested that it could be the face of her stillborn daughter.

Adolf Wölfli is a prominent, and probably one of the most notable examples of Dubuffet’s collection of art brut. Growing up in Bowil, Switzerland, Wölfli was subject to physical and sexual abuse. Until the age of 10, he had been orphaned, and from there on became a farm labourer. As a young adult, he was unable to marry the woman he loved, due to his low social status. In addition to his early years of torment, he suffered from psychosis and hallucinations. Wölfli had been sentenced on two seperate occasions for sexual assault. One in 1890, where he was given a two year sentence for attempted sexual assault on two young females. The second, in 1895, he allegedly molested an infant child. As a result, Wölfli was committed to the Waldau Psychiatric Clinic in Bern, Switzerland, where he spent the rest of his days. Due to his condition, his violence towards other prisoners kept him in isolation during his early years at the establishment. (Eiss, 2012:50)

Wölfli began to draw using pencils and crayons after his fourth year in the hospital. His illustrations feature vastly detailed patterns, self created musical scores and colourful scenery, “comprising more than twenty-five thousand pages of intermingled reality and fiction, and recasting himself as a sainted child.” (American Visionary Art Museum, s.d) This can be further explained, according to Dr. Walter Morgenthaler, who visited Wölfli at Waldau. In his book, he mentions that his “compulsion to create represented a desperate effort to provide organisation to his chaotic mental world, an attempt to make sense of his turbulent life and to restore self-esteem in the face of his profound feelings of shame, guilt and self-denigration.” (Morgenthaler, 1992:14) In addition, some of the artwork holds some form of a symmetry, featuring his musical scores and text. The use of bright colours gives an insight into the inner workings of Wölfli’s mind, in which he is portraying a softer, light-hearted atmosphere which he perceives to be his fantasy world (as opposed to his dark and tortured past).

There have been many artists who have impacted the art world from an institutional environment. Swiss artist Aloïse Corbaz is a very important and significant figure on both institutional and outsider art. Corbaz had always had a passion for opera and singing, which many believe to be a huge influence on her artwork. Having an “educated and cultured upbringing”, Corbaz became a successful tutor, which therefore led to her receiving a job as a governess for German Kaiser Wilhelm II’s pastor’s children, pre World War I. (Maizels, 1996:45) Corbaz had manifested feelings for the Kaiser, becoming considerably obsessive and deluded. Some could suggest that her infatuation had lead to her mental deterioration by the time she had returned to Switzerland after the declaration of war had been signed. On her return, Corbaz would show clear signs of mental instability, thus eventually being diagnosed for schizophrenia and being sectioned at Cery-sur-Lausanne asylum in 1918. For 18 years, she had created her works of art in secret, using limited materials such as “graphite and ink, juice from petals, crushed leaves and toothpaste. The support material for her expression was wrapping paper sewn with thread or alternatively envelopes, bits of cardboard or the backs of calendars.” (Collection De L’Art Brut Lausanne, s.d)

Dubuffet encountered Corbaz at the time of his initial trip to Switzerland. Mesmerised by her work, she became one of the first artists to stem the idea of Dubuffet’s art brut collection. In regards to her art, each illustration would feature vibrant images with that of curvaceous semi-nude or royally dressed or nude females, swirling patterns, flowers, crowns and jewels. The women hold a resemblance to that of a princess or a position of power, presented with smiling red lips and overpowering blue eyes. Many of her workings can possibly allude to her infatuation and time spent with the Kaiser, where she is seen as a beautiful princess in a fictional rose-filled world. For instance, she also features a male alongside a female character. The smiles on the faces suggest a sense of satisfaction, with the eerie doll-like eyes staring into the viewer’s direction. Corbaz’s attention to this intimate, erotic world may be that of her projecting a false reality in which she is the Kaiser’s lover.

In terms of Dubuffet’s own artwork, he adopted the styles of many (including the above examples) outsider artists. Unlike the conventional artist’s use of perfect lighting, composition, texture and brushstrokes, his fascination with child-like illustrations and use of unorthodox materials to create a piece made his art stand out from the norm. Using work from L’Hourloupe, Dubuffet’s depiction of a person would have “no individual identity”, in which an idea of a face would be projected, despite its appearance of actually being a face of a person. (Waddington Gallieries, 1994:5). His art is very similar to that of Picasso, in which he implements use of graffiti-esque abstract shapes, diverting the viewer’s attention to a specific detail which defines the character of the piece. (Vaizey, 2012) Needless to say, Dubuffet’s passion and enthusiasm for bringing attention to outsider art to the western world became a pivotal moment in art and how it is viewed in an academic practice.

Art Therapy, Adamson and Art of the Insane

Art therapy is the use of art in a therapeutic sense. It is unknown exactly when art therapy came about, as this has been a strategy that has been used long before it was first officially implemented as a means to help people in the mid 20th century. Administered within institutions such as prisons and hospitals, this method is intended to allow the patient a chance to express themselves freely in art form, whilst also giving them the opportunity to stay occupied. Using styles such as painting or pencil on paper, sculptures, collage or clay, this therefore acts as a bond to both the client and his/her therapist, allowing for a development and understanding of the patient’s mental state, which can therefore be used to unearth mental flaws. The picture which is created acts as a focal point to a conversation, where “the therapy is primarily achieved by the emotion released and the insight gained through talking. (Bitchnell, cited in Dalley 1984:41) Referred to as a ‘triangular relationship’, the art is used to invoke subjects of which some might consider a difficult task without it. (Gilroy, 2000:118) This method can be a vital activity for people suffering from mental health disorders, such as trauma or depression. Art Therapy, Research and Evidence-based Practice notes that art therapy used with female incest survivors proved to be a positive outcome, where it “provided a safe means of communication which enhanced insight, catharsis and group cohesion”. (Gilroy, 2006:122)

Adrian Hill was the pioneer for art therapy by coining the term in 1941. Suffering from tuberculosis, Hill was placed in King Edward VII sanatorium, where he found the act of drawing to be a meditative experience on his hospital bed.“The point I wish to make here is that rest, physical inactivity was beginning to pall, I was increasingly aware that time which had been ‘marking time’ for some weeks past was now halted and stood still – very still! And with this dread realisation came the happy discovery of how to set the pendulum in motion again, by the simple act of drawing.” (Hill s.d, cited in Nicholls, 2013)

Hill’s recovery provoked attention from staff, who allowed him to aid other patients through the same technique that he had adopted. His belief was that art could be used as a technique to relieve other patients by taking their mind off the pain, therefore releasing stress and boosting the recovery rate. Successful in implementing his methods, this officially spurred the practice of art therapy in other sanatorium establishments. Furthermore, the British Red Cross Picture Library (BRC) started a program to deliver recreations of famous artworks to sanatoriums around England, appointing Hill as a lecturer. Providing an insight on the artworks and its artists, Hill, and others, provided an interactive therapeutic session to patients which allowed them the opportunity to observe and understand the pieces. The project was extended to mental asylums once sanatoriums had started to close.

Edward Adamson, who had also worked alongside Hill for the BRC, became the first artist to be employed by the National Health Service in 1946. Working at mental asylum in Netherne, Surrey, Adamson’s job was to organise and facilitate art sessions to patients. Following the research of art and psychosis at Maudsley Hospital in the 1930s, it was Adamson’s responsibility to bring forth its continuation and further develop an understanding of art as a medical process at Netherne. The psychiatrists who had been involved in the research prior to Adamson’s appointment also remained, with Francis Reitman appointed as research director. Asylums in 1946 had used inhumane methods (at the time it wasn’t considered as such), “such as insulin coma treatment and major brain operations, including lobotomies”. As a result, Adamson’s patients would often carrying black eyes, shaved heads and deformed faces due to operations. Due to this being an experimental phase, the hospital featured conditions, such the use of contrasting music both pre and post lobotomies. In addition, patients were given identical tools and canvases. Each artwork would then be analysed by the hospital’s psychiatrists, who analysed irregularities within the work. The research continued to run for five years until medical superintendent and psychiatrist Eric Cunningham Dax had left the project to work at a mental hospital in Australia.

Dax’s departure drove Adamson to change the methods that were initially set when he was hired. Evolving on the therapeutic process, he would treat patients with a more human input, where they were given free reign to express themselves. Work spaces for the patients were non-restrictive and spacious. “Adamson didn’t feel that interpretation of the artwork was a good idea”, with the notion that a patient has a dependancy on the therapist, and an act of creating artwork would be in a sense to please their helper, which they are expecting a reward. (Hogan 2013) Henceforth, Adamson became less of a teacher and more of an observer, to which he didn’t instruct on how to draw/paint and didn’t feel the need to analyse workings or suggest the content to patients. He also “made provisions for the people who preferred to work alone or required unusual materials”.(Wellcome Collection, s.d) This also gave the patients the opportunity to be more creative.

As art therapy had become a major influence on medical practice, The British Association of Art Therapists was formed in 1964. Along with Adamson being one of the founding members, this organisation was created to accommodate an educational system to help develop aspiring art therapists, thus providing for hospitals, clinics and private clients to the present day. Art would therefore be used “not as as mere distraction, but rather as a tool in the acquisition of self-control, and as a means to the elevation of the spirit”. (Hogan 2001, cited in Edwards 2014:22) Creativity amongst a troubled individual can “help greatly and the repressed elements, even evil and criminal contents of the Unconscious, can often be expressed in the less destructive way of an Art form and temporarily be held there.” (Champernowne, 1971:3)

During his tenure at Netherne, Adamson accumulated a large amount of artwork from many of his patients from 1946 to his retirement in 1981. Named as ‘The Adamson Collection’, the gallery currently houses “roughly 5,500” works of art, including paintings, drawings, sculptures, ceramics, etc (According to Adamson Collection Trust). Similar to Dubuffet’s showcase of art brut to the world, Adamson’s intentions were to share to the public the workings of the mentally ill. His ideals were to show the creativity and freedom in which the artists were capable of, and hoped to diminish the stigma which surrounded the word ‘insanity’. However, unlike the art brut collection, many of the artist’s identities are unknown (possibly due to the patient’s confidentiality). Adamson’s collection began when a detainee, J. J. Beegan, handed him simplistic drawings made with charred matchsticks over tissue paper and covers ripped from hospital library books.

Rolanda Polonska, an Italian sculptor, painter and poet, was one of Adamson’s most renowned patient’s. Admitted to Netherne shortly after the second World War for suffering from schizophrenia, Polonska was encouraged to reinstate herself in the world of art. Her treatment in the psychiatric hospital lasted 35 years, where she created many different forms of art, ranging from illustrations to paintings and also sculptures. Music was an integral part to her art, as she used it to immerse herself whilst drawing. Many of her drawings have Adamson’s notes on the underside of it, detailing her title, date and the music she had been playing at the time.

Her most famous work, ‘The Stations of the Cross: Crucifixion’, features 14 sculptures of Jesus on the cross. Each sculpt had its own unique characteristic to it. This may suggest that she was channelling her schizophrenia through each sculpt, also showing that she had religious values. Polonska had mentioned that art was her “saviour”. This implies the positive effect of art as therapy, as it had given her a sense of escapism in a restricted environment. (Wellcome Collection, s.d)

In addition to art therapy being used as a healing method, the artwork itself can invoke the patient’s moods and feelings on their situation. Mary Bishop’s paintings feature a female figure, which she reflects on herself. Described by Adamson as being a “quiet and retiring person”, her art reflected a somewhat internally damaged individual. For example, ‘The Demonstration’ (see fig.8.) features a nude woman in front of a crowd of male onlookers while she is examined by another male. Her facial features indicate a sign of uneasiness, while the onlookers and examiner show no signs of empathy. This alludes to her time at the asylum, in which she may have felt uncomfortable while the doctors were analysing her physical state. Her other work, ‘The sadist in the white coat’ (see fig.9.), contains a painting of a male doctor overshadowing a tiny image of a subdued female. Whip in hand, the doctor looks to be inducing pain to her while she submits. The expression on his face seems dominant and menacing. In this piece, Bishop is clearly detailing her fear of the doctors at the asylum, in which she believes she has been mistreated. Other works include a portrait of a screaming/crying woman and another of a woman drowning in the sea. In regards to her paintings, this further suggests that she has been using art as a form of communication, detailing her anger and fears of living in isolation and trying to break free of a situation where there is no way out. These are just a few of a thousand paintings which Bishop had created during her 30 year stay at Netherne. (Wellcome Collection, s.d)

A further example of a patient depicting their point of view on paper is one from an unknown artist. The painting in itself (see fig.10.) features two figures, one which seemingly appears to be an animal’s body with a clown’s face. The other, a tiny insect-like figure, is seen in the bottom corner. The dominant figure looks to be posing a threat to the smaller, more vulnerable creature. In addition, the larger figure is staring at the other with bulging eyes, whilst the smaller figure is returning the favour with an overelaborated eyeball staring back. Depicting the artwork, it can be interpreted as the patient feeling small and helpless (like an insect), while the animalistic doctor is always keeping an eye on him/her. The eyeball looking back could imply that the patient is trying not to be intimidated, and possibly keeping a brave face.

This piece (see fig.11.) is a very symbolic one in Adamson’s collection. Featuring an illustration of a woman with long, flowing and shiny hair, the image has its twist in which there are eyeballs popping out from the the tips. According to ‘wellcome collection’ (some of the artwork is exhibited there), eyes are a recurring theme in many of the patient’s artwork in the collection, which all allude to the doctors and nurses of the asylum being fixated on them. Having to endure many tests and analytical procedures, the relevance of the eye has an eery and unsettling context, consequently pushing the audience to understand the feeling of always being watched.

Adamson’s collection provided knowledge on the artists and was an effective way of presenting their work. In fact, gathered work from the original experiment of art therapy that had been in place before Adamson’s arrival at Netherne is also displayed in an exhibition. The original psychiatrists, Eric Guttman and Walter Maclay collected artwork from mescaline-induced patients during their experiments at Maudsley. ‘Bethlem: The Museum of the Mind’, houses collections from art produced by mentally ill patients (including the Guttman-Maclay collection). High profile artist’s work have been showcased as part of a programme to raise awareness and allow people to view their art in a gallery.

For instance, as part of the Guttman-Maclay Collection, the exhibition features work from Louis Wain. Wain’s drawings heavily implemented the use of detailed cats, including light-hearted imagery of cats performing human actions with individual personalities. However, he began to suffer from schizophrenia, resulting in him being placed in Bethlem Hospital around the 1930s. His work took a strange turn, in which his anthropomorphised cat drawings began to contain psychedelic, kaleidoscopic patterns and abstract shapes, as opposed to his earlier cartoony and realistic depictions. Psychology textbooks mention Wain’s work as a visual representation of the descent of his mental condition, detailing the change in tone of his art. For example, his earlier art showed cats in a comfortable, stable environment. Their actions were humorous and added an interesting take on a what-if scenario where cats are human-like. As Wain’s mental deterioration progressed, his work became chaotic. Comparing to his previous work, it is evident that the eyes of the cats play a vital role in analysing his stage of mental illness. As his portraits of cats become progressively more abstract and distorted, the eyes began to show signs of a hostile nature. This could suggest Wain’s portrayal of himself being under the gaze of the stigma that follows with mental health disorder.

‘Bethlem: The Museum of the Mind’ also features that of Victorian artist and mental health patient Richard Dadd. Having been a successful painter until the age of 25, Dadd’s trip to the Middle-East proved to be the turning point in his life, to which his sanity had dwindled out of control. He himself had believed to be possessed by Egyptian God Osiris, where his violent behaviour and delusions became a sudden transition from his normal self. On his return in 1843, convinced that his father was the devil, he murdered him and subsequently sought refuge in France. He was involved in a razor attack on a French civilian which consequently brought him back to England in chains, leading him to his time at Bethlem Hospital. Dadd would later be transferred to Broadmoor, where he would spend the rest of his days (died 1886). During his conviction, Dadd was encouraged to paint, which would keep him occupied. Being placed in an asylum was one that would “guarantee the invisibility of the insane” from the public, however his work brought his talent to attention, gaining popularity to the outside world. (MacGregor, 1989:116).

Dadd’s artwork speaks for itself, in which the use of intricate and miniature details described his talent for what used to be a promising career. His most prized painting, ‘The Fairy Feller’s Master-Stroke’, showed just how precise Dadd was in implementing his mind onto canvas. The painting is scattered with figures of all shapes and sizes in a woodland realm, with some baring wings resembling that of a fairy. In the middle, there is a man wielding an axe over a chestnut. Daisies are spread across the canvas along with the figures. In his book dedicated to the paintings created by Dadd, ‘Dreams of Fancy: A Loan Exhibition’, Andrew Clayton-Payne mentions his works not only show his “journey from sanity to insanity”, but also “against the backdrop of mid 19th century society” (Clayton-Payne, 2008:5). Looking at Dadd’s creation, one could suggest that his style of using the canvas in its entirety creates a distorted illusion. Dadd’s use of fairies and daisies could be a sign of him living out his fantasy through his art. Covering the canvas in detailed subjects can also imply that his mind is somewhat chaotic, in which he is manifesting all ideas at once. In addition to his masterpiece, Dadd’s other work reminisces of his past life, such as his trip to the Middle-East. Art had helped Dadd transition his visions through a medium which people wouldn’t understand in person.

Prison Art: Pogo the Clown, The Koestler Trust and Charles Bronson

With art therapy being an important asset to include in mental hospitals, its implementation in prisons has also gained spotlight. Even before it had been made an official practice, prisoners have been creating art from a cell in order to channel their creativity and occupy themselves. The positive effects of art in prisons allow the opportunity for offenders to hone their energy into a creative field, benefitting from gaining new skills in craft and also being productive during their day. “The work is not always about producing ‘art’ or images, but it is something to do with living creatively and being able to respond positively to a difficult situation.” This provides an “emphasis on the importance of the senses, emotions, thoughts and feelings… giving people an alternative perspective on their own experience.”(Murphy, cited in Liebmann, 1994:15) Additionally, prisoners can gain a sense of pride and accomplishment, in turn boosting their self-esteem by being associated to a project of their own.

Possibly one of the most widely known cases in the United States, John Wayne Gacy was a serial killer who was placed on death row, eventually receiving his lethal injection in 1994. Guilty for sexually assaulting and brutally murdering 33 young males, some of his acts of violence were carried out by being dressed as ‘Pogo the Clown’, his alter ego. Taking up art during his 14 year spell on death row, Gacy’s work would prove to be a controversial and debatable view on the mind of a serial killer. The subject of clowns is a recurring image in his oil paintings, where he depicts them as himself. Clowns in general is a subject of fear within many of the public, and Gacy’s paintings seems to hold that same effect. His projection of an emotionless face within a clowns body can represent the psychopathic and demonic outlook, providing a fascinating insight into Gacy’s characteristic. Upon analysing his work, the outlines and colouring hold a distorted, somewhat amateurish appearance, in a sense that there is something not so right about it. Coupled with the thought of his real life actions (killing innocent children while dressed as a clown), viewing his work can be a distasteful experience.

‘Hi Ho with Clown’ is just one of many examples of Gacy’s famous paintings. Surrounded by the seven dwarfs of Disney’s 1937 animated film ‘Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”, a clown is shown standing in front of balloons in a forest setting. Immediately, the viewers are directed to the disturbing and emotionless face of the clown, who is centred amongst the dwarfs. Black triangular figures are in place of the clown’s eyes, which produces a cold, dead stare. The fact that Disney’s Dwarfs are so popular in children’s entertainment, the inclusion of them provides a distasteful feeling to viewers, who are reminded of the innocent young lives lost to this person. With the painting itself being executed in an amateurish way (such as the bold, irregular outlines, blocky colouring, use of shapes and patterns, etc), it could be implied that his child-like drawings are alluding to his target audience as a clown, of which he is aiming towards children. His work has gained controversy, with many pleading for it to be destroyed due to his name gaining publicity. They believe this therefore undermines the victims and their families while his name makes the headlines for his art. In current day, Gacy’s paintings can be viewed in exhibitions, whilst some of his work have been sold at auctions.

Hungarian writer and journalist Arthur Koestler is a renowned figure in the subject of art within prisons. Sentenced on three separate occasions, Koestler endured the life of an imprisoned individual, where he understood the balance between creativity and desolation. His past incarcerations and experiences would eventually lead him to employ a scheme which dealt with prison art and detainees. Formed in 1962, The Koestler Trust Awards is a charity acting to publicise creative works which are then displayed to the public. Designed as a reward scheme, offenders are encouraged to produce works of art which will be presented to audiences in a gallery. In addition, one in four offenders are applicable to winning a cash price, “from £20 and £60, with £100 awards for Outstanding Achievement.” (Koestler Trust, s.d) Some of the artworks are also placed on sale, with 25% of proceedings being donated to Victim Support. Working closely with prisoners, the scheme helps encourage the positive aspects of its participants, therefore aspiring to increase self-esteem, motivation and raise awareness to the outside world on the creative processes that they are indulging in. Furthermore, the aim of having them co-operate will also encourage a sense of pride within their work, that can therefore be an effective work-related skill in the future (if/once they are released).

A high amount of art made for the Koestler Awards has received critical acclaim. Craft produced by convicts can include paintings, sculptures, poetry, ceramics, models, drawings, music and performance. Their use of limited materials enhances the audience’s understanding and appreciation of their creativity, also acknowledging the struggles of life behind bars. The Koestler Awards also give artists an opportunity to comment on their work, delivering their thought process and reasons behind their art. This provides an insight into the individual’s mindset, which often educates audiences on the positives of partaking in a creative hobby and the benefits it has during their sentence. An example of a highly valued work submitted for the award scheme includes that of an unnamed convict who has created the clay sculpt (see fig.14), titled ‘Son of a Red Man’ (which received a Silver Award). As part of the ‘Forgiveness’ themed category, the artist conveys messages of guilt and sorrow by portraying himself as the subject. Commenting on his work, he mentions that he dedicates it to his mother, detailing that he wants her to recognise that he is “sane”, and also states that he is horrified by his actions, and that his work is an apology to her. He indicates the benefits of being creative, saying that its a “lovely side” of him, and that he is “amazed” at his work and how quickly he is progressing. On the subject of the scheme itself, he goes on to say that its “encouraging” to help him change himself as a person. (Koestler Trust, s.d)

‘The Future is at Hand’ (see fig.15.) is another example of work submitted for the awards scheme. Displaying a painting of a hand reaching over a sea with a sunset backdrop, the work transmits the artist’s emotion of metaphorically drowning. The artist is quoted in saying that the work symbolises his initial fear of prison, where he was undergoing a sense of drowning. However, he says that if he “pulls through this, like the deepest sea, then [he] can reach [his] hand and be what [he wants] to be”. Evident in his work, the hand can be interpreted as such. The viewer's first thought when analysing the piece can perceive that the person (or the hand) is representing the feeling of drowning. However, on closer inspection, the hand does not appear to look like it is struggling. One could theorise that the hand is therefore reaching out of the ocean, further backing the artist’s statement. The horizon may suggest the possible closing chapter of his past life, resulting in him moving on and looking towards the ‘future’. Above all, the artist associates the work to taking a “deep breath and thinking positively”, pushing away negative thoughts. On the topic of undertaking an artistic hobby, the artist says that it has aided him in expressing emotions “in a way [that he] had not tried before, also saying that the reception he has gained has helped boost his morale, giving him confidence to continue his work. (Koestler Trust, s.d)

Charles Salvador (born as Michael Peterson, or better known as Charles Bronson) learned his craft during his sentence (which is still currently being served as of 2016), and is also one of the faces of outsider art in present day. Originally sentenced to seven years in 1974 for armed robbery at a post office in Ellesmere Port, Bronson would spend the remainder of his current life in prison due to his violent outbursts on officers and fellow prisoners. Notorious for his actions, he has been transferred between every prison in England, effectively earning the title of the UK’s most violent prisoner. He would regularly be placed in solitary confinement (for months at a time) due to his fits of rage, in addition to receiving physical assault from the officers trying to subdue him. Bronson’s short temper prompted the government to certify him as insane, subsequently placing him in the infamous Broadmoor hospital. It was at Broadmoor where Bronson suffered the most, as he was heavily sedated and witnessed real mentally ill patients in a restricted area (which he uses the term “loonies”). In his book ‘Broadmoor: My Journey Into Hell’, he mentions the standards of the other patients, their suicidal tendencies, the abuse received from the guards and the suffering caused as an after effect of the drugs he was forced to take. (Bronson, 2015:64)

His brief release from prison saw him begin a career of bare-knuckle boxing, more robbery, theft and violence. Bronson lasted 69 days until he was placed back in prison in 1988. As a way to put an end to his violence and have him focused on something more productive, Bronson was encouraged by prison art teacher Phil Danielson (who he ends up physically assaulting and holding hostage) to begin drawing. Ultimately, Bronson developed a talent for drawing, where he created vast amounts of cartoon illustrations featuring himself and the prison environment. Despite some hiccups over the years, taking up art has been a positive effect on Bronson’s indulgence on violent outbursts. To this day his works are auctioned for lucrative prices, with an example price of one of his sketches reaching around a thousand pounds, according to JP Humberts of Towcester. (Northampton Chronicle, 2014) All proceedings are donated to charities of Bronson’s choice.

Boasting a satirical edge, Bronson’s work affiliates itself within the surrealist genre. The disturbing cartoons mainly derive from the themes he gathered from his time at Broadmoor, depicting the unsettling and fearful state of mind. His work also reflects on his prisoner status, with some of his work showing bars and chains attached to the character. Upon analysing his art, one could suggest that his own violence follows through onto the paper. His chaotic and unstable life can be perceived through a series of deformed, bloody and strikingly detailed mutilation and scarred imagery, often using his own characteristics as a base to work around. Heavily inspired by surrealist painter Salvador Dali (hence the name change in 2014), Bronson portrays his views on life behind bars by bringing forth attention to his take on the word ‘insanity’ and ‘madness’. For example, one of his drawings include a man in a straight jacket in solitary confinement (see fig.17.). With one hand free, he is seen holding a sign labelled “insane”, with wires connecting from his head to electrical apparatus. A CCTV camera is also visible, pointing at his direction. Analysing this piece, it is clear that Bronson is referring to idea of the government wrongly labelling him as mentally ill. The camera conveys the feeling of always being watched, whilst the electric wiring could suggest a sense of vulnerability or unjust physical abuse. These details placed together puts forward the thought of him being forced to become what he is told (in this case being insane), and that if he steps out of line he will be punished.

Bronson’s work has currently seen him awarded for 11 Koestler Trust Awards. Showcased in art galleries, his cartoons have publicly gained appraisal from critics. A decision to implement his work in London Underground stations in 2010 provided a controversial topic of discussion, where the National Victims' Association complained that promoting work from a criminal should not be allowed. His work was eventually removed from the network, with others defending the decision to include it on the walls (BBC, 2010). Representatives of Bronson have set up ‘The Charles Salvador Arts Foundation’, which strives to promote his art and also inspire others to create. In addition, his work is also sold from the site and proceeds are donated to his choices of charity, whilst he also gains a small amount.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is evident that art therapy has had a positive effect on the topic of outsider art. The development of the western society’s perception of art has shifted from an academic and technical standpoint, to one which currently holds a variety of techniques and cultural influences. Dubuffet’s passion for bringing art brut to life answered questions of weather people outside the profession of art should be considered artists. Alongside Dubuffet’s art brut collection, it is also important to note that Adamson’s collection also brings light to art of the mentally ill. Their pieces show the struggles in which they had dealt with, detailing the way in which they transitioned their minds through their paintings, sculptures or illustrations. In turn, this gives viewers a chance to interpret their workings to the artist’s life, where many can construct valid points which can be extracted from the content of their work.

Although being a controversial subject, prisoner’s have gained attention from their art due to its therapeutic aspect. Their work can also detail their previous lifestyle or thoughts of prison life. As previously mentioned, the Koestler Trust’s impact has been a positive one, in which detainee’s artwork is used to gain money for themselves and also donated to Victim Support. Consequently, this in turn gives the prisoner a purpose, notifying them that they still have a positive influence on society despite their crime.

As part of my research on prison art, I went to the RE:Form exhibition at the Southbank Centre. Distributed by the Koestler Trust, I was given a chance to view art submitted by offenders as part of the reward scheme. The art featured there was produced from many different prisons and mental hospitals around the UK, some created by young offenders while others spending decades of incarceration. There were a variety of pieces displayed, from paintings to poems, wooden and clay sculptures, soap carvings, drawings and also self produced music. The exhibition just showed the level of creativity that was at hand, which was also being guided by an ex-offender. He mentioned the way that art gives detainees a chance to project their anger towards an inanimate object, allowing for others to understand their troubles. Another subject he spoke about was the colours used within the art. Upon looking at work created by mental patients, he noted that their use of vibrant colours showed that despite being in what we would generalise as a dark place, they still presented their art with life and enthusiasm. (Southbank Centre, 2015)

Finally, my understanding of art therapy has given me an understanding of how it has positively benefitted people who are considered ‘outsiders’. Their self-taught practices allow viewers to analyse such methods along with their psychological and personal backgrounds. It is an interesting way to unravel an artist’s story through their artwork, and appreciate the means in which they have completed it. Art is still a constantly developing subject, and with the introduction and progression of outsider art changing the views of how we see art in a professional environment, I believe this allows creative processes to flourish under other artists who are using their own approach. My example of a current progression of outsider art would include the introduction of digital entertainment, primarily YouTube, which allows anyone to be creative while their work can be promoted through worldwide views over the internet. This therefore allows amateurs to present their artistic visions, encouraging creativity and subsequently develops art and how we view it outside a gallery.

List of Illustrations

Figure 1. Zinelli, Carlo (1961) [Painting] At: http://www.artbrut.ch/en/21004/1004/carlo (Accessed on 29.12.15)

Figure 2. Zinelli, Carlo (s.d) [Painting] At: http://www.petulloartcollection.org/data/artwork/zinelli-untitled-black_figure_right-lg.JPG (Accessed on 29.12.15)

Figure 3. Gill, Madge (s.d) [Illustration] At: http://www.newhamstory.com/node/2171 (Accessed on 29.12.15)

Figure 4. Wölfli, Adolf (1922) [Illustration] At: http://www.artbrut.ch/en/21004/1036-1/authors/wolfli--adolf (Accessed 30.12.15)

Figure 5. Corbaz, Aloïse (s.d) [Illustration] At: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/fd/56/f2/fd56f2341c45e959446461400f288e46.jpg (Accessed 15/01/16)

Figure 6. Dubuffet, Jean (1967) [Painting] At: http://www.culture24.org.uk/art/art407969 (Accessed 30.12.15)

Figure 7. Polonska, Rolanda (s.d) [Sculpture] At: http://wellcomecollection.org/sites/default/files/styles/gallery_medium/public/Barham_Stations-2_gall.jpg?itok=qqteHZ7z (Accessed on 14.01/16)

Figure 8. Bishop, Mary (s.d) [Painting] At: http://wellcomecollection.org/adamson-collection-0/?image=14 (Accessed on 19.01.16)

Figure 9. Bishop, Mary (s.d) [Painting] At: http://wellcomecollection.org/adamson-collection-0/?image=16 (Accessed on 19.01.16)

Figure 10. Retaliation (s.d) [Painting] At: http://wellcomecollection.org/adamson-collection-0/?image=8 (Accessed on 23.01.16)

Figure 11. You are getting in my hair! (s.d) [Painting] At: http://wellcomecollection.org/adamson-collection-0/?image=4 (Accessed on 23.01.16)

Figure 12. Dadd, Richard (1964) [Painting] At: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Richard_Dadd_-_The_Fairy_Feller's_Master-Stroke_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg (Acessed on 01.02.16)

Figure 13. Gacey, John Wayne (s.d) [Painting] At: http://www.museumsyndicate.com/item.php?item=12859 (Accessed on 29.01.16)

Figure 14. Son of a Red Man (s.d) [Sculpture] At: http://www.koestlertrust.org.uk/pages/uk2013/exhibitionimages/bunker_slides.html#Forgiveness (Accessed on 30.01.16)

Figure 15. The Future is at Hand (s.d) [Painting] At: http://www.koestlertrust.org.uk/pages/uk2013/exhibitionimages/bunker_slides.html#TheFutureisatHand (Accessed on 20.01.16)

Figure 16. Bronson, Charles (s.d) [Illustration] At: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/94/80/35/94803572ef846dfc67526a09004e8794.jpg (Accessed on 03.02.16)

Figure 17. Bronson, Charles (s.d) [Illustration] At: http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/the-death-of-bronson-new-exhibition-gives-insight-into-the-mind-of-britains-most-violent-criminal-9964950.html#gallery (Accessed on 01.02.16)

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Sahir Rahman

Friday, 19 February 2016

Research - Kytten Janae

Thursday, 18 February 2016

Face

Blinking Eye

Wednesday, 10 February 2016

Research - Andre Masson

Research - Henri Matisse

Research - Chapman Brothers

Monday, 8 February 2016

Dissertation - Art Therapy and its influence on the development of 'Outsider' Art practices within an institutionalised environment.